2016

【英文１】
The Child with Autism

(ア)Most infants and young children are very social creatures who need and want contact with others to thrive and grow. They smile, cuddle, laugh, and respond eagerly to games like "peek-a-boo" or hide-and-seek. Occasionally, however, a child does not interact in this expected manner. Instead, the child seems to exist in his or her own world, a place characterized by repetitive routines, odd and peculiar behaviors, problems in communication, and a total lack of social awareness or interest in others. These are characteristics of a developmental disorder called autism.
  Autism is usually identified by the time a child is 30 months old. It is often discovered when parents become concerned that their child may be deaf, is not yet talking, resists cuddling, and avoids interaction with others.
Some of the early signs and symptoms which suggest a young child may need further evaluation for autism include:
  ・no smiling by six months of age
  ・no back and forth sharing of sounds, smiles or facial expressions by nine months
  ・no babbling, pointing, reaching or waving by 12 months
  ・no single words by 16 months
  ・no two word phrases by 24 months
  ・regression in development
  ・any loss of speech, babbling or social skills
  A preschool age child with "classic" autism is generally withdrawn, aloof, and fails to respond to other people. Many of these children will not even make eye contact. They may also engage in odd or ritualistic behaviors like rocking, hand flapping, or an obsessive need to maintain order.
  Many children with autism do not speak at all. Those who do may speak in rhyme, have echolalia (repeating a person's words like an echo), refer to themselves as a "he" or "she," or use peculiar language.
(イ) The severity of autism varies widely, from mild to severe. Some children are very bright and do well in school, although they have problems with school adjustment. They may be able to live independently when they grow up. Other children with autism function at a much lower level. Mental retardation is commonly associated with autism. Occasionally, a child with autism may display an extraordinary talent in art, music, or another specific area.
  The cause of autism remains unknown, although current theories indicate a problem with the function or structure of the central nervous system. What we do know, however, is that parents do not cause autism.
  Children with autism need a comprehensive evaluation and specialized behavioral and educational programs. Some children with autism may also benefit from treatment with medication. Child and adolescent psychiatrists are trained to diagnose autism, and to help families design and implement an appropriate treatment plan. They can also help families cope with the stress which may be associated with having a child with autism.
  Although there is no cure for autism, appropriate specialized treatment provided early in life can have a positive impact on the child's development and produce an overall reduction in disruptive behaviors and symptoms.

出典：American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry "Facts for Families Guide"
https://www.aacap.org/App_Themes/AACAP/docs/facts_for_families/11_the_child_with autism.pdfより一部改変

【英文２】
Helping Children with Autism

  There are many things parents can do to help children with autism overcome their challenges. But it's also important to make sure you get the support you need. When you're looking after a child with autism, taking care of yourself is not an act of selfishness?it's a necessity. Being emotionally strong allows you to be the best parent you can be to your child in need. These parenting tips can help by making life with an autistic child easier.
  If you've recently learned that your child has or might have an autism spectrum disorder(注＊),  you're probably wondering and worrying about what comes next. No parent is ever prepared to hear that a child is anything other than happy and healthy, and a diagnosis of autism can be particularly frightening. You may be unsure about how to best help your child, or confused by conflicting treatment advice. Or you may have been told that autism is an incurable, lifelong condition, leaving you concerned that nothing you do will make a difference.
  While it is true that autism is not something a person simply "grows out of," there are many treatments that can help children learn new skills and overcome a wide variety of developmental challenges. From free government services to in-home behavioral therapy and school-based programs, assistance is available to meet your child's special needs. With the right treatment plan, and a lot of love and support, your child can learn, grow, and thrive.

Don't wait for a diagnosis
  As the parent of a child with autism or related developmental delays, the best thing you can do is to start treatment right away. Seek help as soon as you suspect something's wrong. Don't wait to see if your child will catch up later or outgrow the problem. Don't even wait for an official diagnosis. The earlier children with autism spectrum disorders get help, the greater their chance of treatment success. Early intervention is the most effective way to speed up your child's development and reduce the symptoms of autism.
Learn about autism
　　The more you know about autism spectrum disorders, the better equipped you'll be to make informed decisions for your child. Educate yourself about the treatment options, ask questions, and participate in all treatment decisions
Become an expert on your child
  Figure out what triggers your kid's "bad or disruptive behaviors and what elicits a positive response. What does your autistic child find stressful? Calming? Uncomfortable? Enjoyable? If you understand what affects your child, you'll be better at troubleshooting problems and
preventing situations that cause difficulties.
Accept your child, quirks and all
  Rather than focusing on how your autistic child is different from other children and what he or she is "missing, practice acceptance. Enjoy your kid's special quirks, celebrate small successes, and stop comparing your child to others. Feeling unconditionally loved and accepted will help your child more than anything else.
Don't give up
It's impossible to predict the course of an autism spectrum disorder. Don't jump to conclusions about what life is going to be like for your child. Like everyone else, people with autism have an entire lifetime to grow and develop their abilities.

出典：HELPGUIDE.org "Helping Children with Autism"
http://www.helpguide.org/articles/autism/helping-children-with-autism.htm
より抜粋，一部改変

注：
autism　自閉症  (*) 英文2ではautism spectrum disorder (自閉症スペクトラム障害) とも記載されているが、ここでは同義と考えてよい。
cuddle 抱きしめる medication 薬物
regression         退行 diagnose 診断する
withdrawn         内気な Reduction         軽減
aloof よそよそしい disruptive behaviors 問題行動
ritualistic 儀式的な         trigger 引き金(を引く)
echolalia 反響言語 (オウム返し) elicit 顕在化させる
obsessive 強迫的な quirk 　　　癖
adjustment 適応 predict 予測する
mental retardation 知的障害

2017

【英文１】
What to Tell Your Children about Disasters
It is important to warn children, without overly alarming them, about disasters. Tell children that a disaster is something that could hurt people or cause damage. Explain that nature sometimes provides "too much of a good thing" - fire, rain, or wind. Talk about things that could happen during a storm, like the fact that the lights or phone might not work. Tell children there are many people who can help them during a disaster, so that they will not be afraid of firemen, policemen, paramedics, or other emergency officials.

Staying Calm in an Emergency
 The most important role a parent can play in an emergency situation is to stay calm.　  Children of alll ages can easily pick up on their parents' fears and anxieties. In a disaster, they'll look to you for help and for clues on how to act. If you react with alarm, a child may become more scared. If you seem overcome with a sense of loss, a child may feel their losses more strongly. Experts agree that you should be honest with your children and explain what's going on.  Just be sure to base the amount of information and level of detail on what's appropriate for their age level.

Children and Their Response to Disaster
 Children depend on daily routines: They wake up, eat breakfast, go to school, and play with friends. When emergencies or disasters interrupt this routine, children may become anxious; not want parents out of their sight / refuse to go to school or child care; or feel guilty that they caused the disaster by something they said or did. Children's fears also may stem from their imagination, and you should take these feelings seriously. Your words and actions can provide reassurance.  When talking with your child, be sure to present a realistic picture that is both honest and manageable.

Common Child Behaviors after a Disaster
  Children may be upset over the loss of a favorite toy, blanket, teddy bear or other items; undergo a personality change-from being quiet, obedient and caring to loud, noisy and aggressive or from outgoing to shy and afraid; have nightmares or be afraid to sleep alone or with the light off; become easily upset, cry or whine; lose trust in adults because the adults in their life were unable to control the disaster; or revert to younger behavior such as bedwetting and thumb sucking.

Special Needs of Children after a Disaster
  Parents should remember that the psychological effects of a natural disaster don't go away once the emergency has passed. Children can suffer from nightmares or other problems for years after a disaster. Children are better able to cope with a traumatic event if parents, teachers and other adults support and help them with their experiences, Help should start as soon as possible after the event. Some children may never show distress because they don't feel upset, while others may not give evidence of being upset for several weeks or even months. Even if children do not show a change in behavior, they may still need your help. Parents should be on the lookout for signs that their kids need some extra counseling.

What Parents Can Do to Help Children Cope after a Disaster
  Talk with children about how they are feeling and listen without judgment. Let them know they can have their own feelings, which might be different than others. Let children take their time to figure things out and to have their feelings. Don't rush them or pretend that they don't think or feel as they do.
Here are some suggested ways to reduce your child's fear and anxiety:
 ・Keep the family together as much as possible. While you look for housing and assistance, try to keep the family together and make children a part of what you are doing. Otherwise, children could get anxious and worry that their parents won't return.
 ・Calmly and firmly explain the situation. As best as you can, tell children what you know about the disaster. Explain what will happen next. For example, say. "Tonight, we will all stay together in the shelter." Get down to the child's eye level and talk to them.
 ・Encourage children to talk. Let them talk about the disaster and ask questions as much as they want. Encourage children to describe what they're feeling. Help them learn to use words that express their feelings, such as happy, sad, angry, mad and scared. Just be sure the words fit their feelings-not yours.
 ・Listen to what they say. If possible, include the entire family in the discussion. Reassure them that the disaster was not their fault in any way. Assure fearful children that you will be there to take care of them. Children should not be expected to be brave or tough, or to "not cry."

Turn off the TV
Once you arrive at a shelter, hotel, or a relative's home, disaster related TV programs should be restricted. News coverage of disasters-especial ly if children see their own town or school on TV-can be traumatic to children of all ages. If children watch TV coverage of the disaster, parents should watch with them and talk about it afterwards.

【英文２】
How to Get Your Family Ready Before a Disaster
  It's important for all family members to know how to react in an emergency, because when a disaster strikes, you may need to act quickly. Discuss possible disaster plans with your children-in a very general way-so that they will know what to do in various situations.

Create a Family Disaster Plan
  You can create a Family Disaster Plan by taking some simple steps. It's important for all family members to know how to react in an emergency because the best protection is knowing what to do.
・Talk with your children about the dangers of disasters that are likely in your area and how to prepare for each type.
・Make sure they know where to go in your home to stay safe during an earthquake, tornado, hurricane, or other disasters likely for your area.
・Teach your child how to recognize danger signals. Make sure your child knows what smoke detectors, fire alarms and local community warning systems (horns, sirens) sound like and what
to do when they hear them.
・Explain to children how and when to call for help. Keep emergency phone numbers (your local Emergency Phone Number List) where family members can find them.
・Pick an out-of-state family contact person who family members can "check-in" with if you are separated during an emergency. For children who are old enough help them to memorize the person's name and phone number, or give them a copy of the emergency list included in the kit.

・Agree on a meeting place away from your home (a neighbor or relative's house or even a street corner) where you would get t.ogether if you were separated in an emergency. Give each family member an emergency list with the name, address and phone number of the meeting place.
For children who are old enough help them to memorize the person's name and phone number, or give them a copy of the emergency list included in the kit.
・Put together a disaster supplies kit for your family.
・Practice your Family Disaster Plan every six months so that everyone will remember what to do when in an emergency.

2010

Speaking and listening with computers
  In English, Attainment Target 1 of the National Curriculum is entitled 'speaking and listening', and calls for 'the development of pupils' understanding of the spoken word and the capacity to express themselves effectively in a variety of speaking and listening activities, matching style and response to audience and purpose'. This sounds quite ambitious, but of course (ア)children normally acquire communication skills in the first years of life. Expressive abilities include speaking, gesture and facial expression, all of which can be limited by motor impairment. Interactive abilities include eye contact and turn taking in conversations. Receptive abilities include listening and seeing, and can be limited by sensory impairment.
 Where there is 'severe cognitive deficit' individuals cannot use the sensory data they receive, nor find ways to express themselves effectively.
  Computer technology can stimulate development of sensory awareness, and can provide substitute ways of expression to non-speaking students (Paveley, 1990). As Stansfield (1989) suggests, for instance, synthesised speech can be very motivating for children with learning difficulties. Stylus, an easy wordprocessing program that can be used with either a Concept Keyboard or a standard one, speaks the children's text through a speech synthesiser. Its 'robot voice' amuses the children and they feel they can do better.
  Although computers can help learners to speak via a synthesised voice, the machines can also help them to 'speak' via text. In Chapter 3 we discussed the problems autistic children and adults have in expressing their thinking, because many are non-speaking. From his Australian experience, Biklen (1990) reports how Rosemary Crossley used her methods during a first meeting, at which he was present with Louis, an Australian student.

  I'M NOT RETARDED: LOUIS' STORY
  Louis is twenty-four years old, with reddish-brown hair and gold metal-rimmed, rectangular-shaped glasses with thick lenses. He was wearing a black and white sweater, black jeans and white tennis wearing shoes when we met him. Louis had very little facial expression. He does not speak, except for a few phrases that seem involuntarily uttered and are out of context. As he entered the room where Crossley was to conduct the assessment, he said: 'Excuse me. Get mommy on the bus. Excuse me,' which didn't make sense to me. Attempts at answering his statements by saying. for example, 'There is no need to be excused, you are fine,' did not quiet him. He repeated the phrase.
  (イ)Crossley introduced herself and me to Louis, who sat between us. She described her work to him as helping people who don't speak to find other ways to communicate. She apologised in advance for her assessment approach: 'Louis, I ask people a lot of really silly questions.' She commenced the session by asking him to press down on various pictures on a talking computer, a children's toy with a voice output that requests the person using it to press various pictures or letters and which announces the user's choice, for example: 'Right, that's the apple.'
  As Crossley asked questions, tears began to roll down Louis's face. (ウ)He was crying silently. She reassured him, telling him that she would do it with him.
Crossley took Louis through a series of graded exercises, with her hand on top of his right arm. The last few consisted of word and letter recognition. He completed all of them successfully. Next, she showed him the Canon Communicator, a small laptop computer with text display and speech synthesis.
  Crossley went through the alphabet and numbers with him. 'For starters,' she asked, 'can you type your name?' At this point her hand was stretched out flat, on top of, but not actually touching, his. He typed 'LOUIS'. As he finished, she asked it there was anything else he wanted to say. Louis started typing again.
  First he typed an '0', then 'PC'. Crossley pulled his hand back from the keys, saying, 'I'm not sure I follow. Let's start over.' This time he typed 'Pocco'. She was confused. Then we realised what he was typing. Pocco is his last name. He was still responding to Crossley's first request, to type his name.
  Crossley asked again if there was anything else Louis wanted to say. He typed, 'I'M NOT RETARDED', to which she remarked, 'No, I don't think you are. Keep going.' Louis continued, 'MY MOTHER FEELS IM STUPID BECAUSE IH [he back-spaced this and crossed out the h] CANT USE MY VOICE PROPERLY.' A tear rolled down his left cheek as he typed. And Crossley said to me and to Louis, 'A lot of people believe that what people say is what they're capable of.'
  Louis was not done. He typed, 'HOW MUCH IS A CANON ?'
  'They're dear,' Crossley answered.
  'I SAVE A BIT BUT NOT ENOUGH' Louis typed.
  Crossley explained that she would continue to work with Louis and that she would try to get him a Canon. Then she congratulated him on his work in the session and said to me, for Louis to hear, 'Anybody who starts off typing, I'm not retarded' isn't retarded. First rule!'

( Hawkridge, D. G. and Vincent, T. (1992) Learning Difficulties and Computers: Access to the Curriculum, pp. 90-91より抜粋，一部改変。)

2008

When it comes to comedy, Kathy Buckley takes center stage. Billed as "America's First Hearing Impaired Comedienne," she was recently nominated "Best Female Stand-Up Comedienne" for the 1997 American Comedy Awards, the third year in a row Buckley has made the award list.

On a wing and a dare
 　(ア)Buckley never aspired to be a comedienne. "I didn't know what I wanted to do," she says. "I wanted to be a nurse when I was a kid, but because of my hearing impairment they said I couldn't." Actually, her performing career started almost by accident.

"I did it on a dare," Buckley admits, speaking of the first time she performed on stage. It was in 1988 at a charity benefit called "Stand-up Comics Take a Stand" in Encino, California. "I was a nervous wreck" she admits. Even though she could not hear the audience's laughter except by feeling the stage floor vibrations, Buckley says what really made her nervous was competing against other comedians with years of experience. Despite that she won fourth place. Since then Kathy Buckley has turned the comedy world "on its ear." Much of her comic material is based on her hearing loss.

Childhood diagnosis
Buckley says it is wonderful how parents have learned to embrace a child's disability. (イ)She was not so lucky as a child. Her own parents never questioned their daughter's hearing impairment and could not accept that she had a disability.
Buckley recalls the years it took teachers and administrators to realize she was deaf. Her grades were poor; there seemed no way to stimulate her academically. "People weren't educated then," she says. "My parents just did what the doctor told them and never asked any questions. " What they were told was to put Buckley in a school for children with mental retardation. It took almost a year after that before doctors realized her disability. "And they called me slow?" she laughs.
 "My parents went into denial that I even had a problem. The doctors saw I had a problem, but told my parents that this or that device would 'fix' me. I ended up in denial as well because no one ever talked to me about it." Buckley says it was not until she was 34-years-old that a specialist explained her condition to her. "It was the first time anyone had talked to me about it."
 "You cannot bond or love unconditionally in denial," Kathy says. "The best gift parents can give their children is joy. Teach that to your children."

Embracing individuality
(ウ)"My comedy disarms people. I truly believe that the only disability out there today is attitude," she says. "I love to make people laugh, but I love even more if I can teach them something at the same time."
And that is just what she does. In her nightly performances she jokes about what it is like to be hearing impaired and about how others treat her. She performs for many charity events and benefits.
Buckley says that although she tries to entertain and enlighten all kinds of people, her heart belongs to children. "Kids mean everything to me." she says. "Every single child deserves to have a real childhood, and they should have healthy role models to show them that people do care about them deeply."
"Every child has something to contribute. " Buckley says. There are no broken children: none need fixing. Don't judge a book by its cover; open the book and get past that cover. The eyes never lie."

Kathy Buckley's Humor
  On personal relationships: "I haven't had a date in over two and a half years. I don't know if it's just me or because I couldn't hear the phone ring."
  On hearing: "One of the first sounds I ever heard were the birds, and I thought 'Birds are hard to lip read, they've got these tiny little beaks."
  On rehabilitation: "I spent 13 years learning how to talk, and now everyone thinks I'm from New York."
  On celebrities: "Howard Stern asked me if I would consider dating a man who had a disability and I said. 'Sure, I'd consider dating you."

出典：D'Agostion, D., Laughing out loud : Turnig a deaf er to comedy. Exceptional Parent, Vol 27, No.3, pp.44-45, 1997より抜粋（一部改変）

参考： aspire ～したいと強く願う
deaf 聴覚障害
disarm （敵意・怒り・疑いなどの）気持ちを和らげる
Howard Stern アメリカ人の人気ディスクジョッキー

2009

Embarrassment, Guilt and Shame
    "We were walking home from school, she and I, and the discussion was focused on my unusual little brother. Unusual, that is, to everyone else. To me, he was just my little brother. Since I only had one, he was unique, regardless of his other qualities. Anyhow, my friend asked me why my brother did not talk yet, as he was almost 5 years old. I thought for a moment and said, very seriously, "Well, he only speaks French and none of us can speak or understand French, so it presents a terrible problem." She nodded with vague comprehension of the "problem." I chuckled all the way home. We were in fourth grade."

  (ア）Feelings of embarrassment, guilt and shame partly depend on how a child has come to make sense of their own role and rights, and those of their brother or sister. Whether a family can appreciate different ways of living, and the degree to which the family gives value and meaning to the life of the child with the disability will influence how a sibling manages these feelings.

    "I can remember being embarrassed about Cathy because she is I can really, I guess quite upsetting to see for the first time… I can remember in a bus terminal we had to spread a blanket on the floor so Cathy could crawl and get a bit of exercise. A crowd gathered and I hated the people so much. I was just terribly embarrassed and I wanted to hide Cathy and I wanted to protect her from these people who were glaring although she certainly didn't know what was going on."
  By middle childhood, siblings are very aware of other people's responses to their brother or sister with a disability. Differences between children at school are magnified and full of dreadful import. Young children will be experiencing feelings of embarrassment about their brother or sister's differences for the first time and will need help to understand their feelings. While children may know the right thing to do or say, the dilemma they face is meeting conflicting needs: the need to protect their sibling and the need for peer acceptance. Siblings can feel a sense of guilt or shame for not 'standing up' for their sibling or for not doing enough to help their sibling or their parents. For some siblings these feelings don't become apparent until adulthood.
    "I remember on the bus, no one wanted Bonnie to sit beside them. One girl walked with a limp. Every day I would ask her if Bonnie or I could sit with her and she would always turn away and tell me the seat was saved, day after day, no one sat beside her, she sat alone and we stood. One day, I got fed up. I picked her books up off the seat and threw them at her. Then I sat on her and made enough room for Bonnie beside me. It was an uncomfortable ride home, but I was tired of standing and I wanted to show people that they would not "catch mental retardation" sitting beside Bonnie."
  Given that their identity is not yet secure, feelings of shame and guilt can be amplified for the young adolescent. Siblings discover that community attitudes towards disability or illness are often contradictory or confused. While some differences are celebrated within our culture, we tend to consider people with disabilities as 'lesser' which is evidenced by the use of insults such as 'retard'. Some siblings cope with the social stigma attached to disability by creating a layer of pride to protect themselves from negative attitudes.
  By adolescence, feelings of guilt and shame are often felt when children are able to empathise with the experience of others. Guilt or shame often follows feelings of anger, embarrassment or jealousy. All children need attention, resources and special time with their parents and when a child starts to understand why their parents have limited time for them, feelings of guilt often result. These feelings can also emerge when siblings begin to understand that they have advantages that their sibling doesn't have. Having a girlfriend or boyfriend, friends to socialise with and prospects for a career can expose the stark contrast between their own life and that of their sibling. Siblings with a brother or sister with a chronic or degenerative illness may feel guilt about their own good health and opportunities in life.
    "I remember being so angry at her, and then feeling so guilty. She was defenceless. I lay awake at night praying that God would forgive me for having such thoughts about my sister. The range and intensity of emotions were too much for me to handle."

（イ）Children will actively seek ways of coping with negative feelings and experiences. While religion can bring about a sense of security and solace, parents need to be mindful of children praying for miracle cures or seeking forgiveness from God in order to deal with their feelings of resentment, jealousy and anger. Listening to children and helping them to understand they are not bad people for having angry thoughts accepting them and supporting them will help to offset feelings of guilt and shame.                        │

  It is important for parents to reassure their children that their feelings are valid, to give them strategies to cope with the reactions of others and to manage their conflicting emotions. By understanding and coping with the difficulties of family life, many siblings develop compassion and become appreciative of their own opportunities, which will in turn become the building blocks for their future emotional and psychological well-being.
（出典：Supporting Siblings: When a Brother or Sister has a Disability or Chronic Illness-Published by the Association for Children with a Disability, pp. 11-12, 2003 より抜粋。
（参考）
a sibling: (障害を持たない·男女の別なく)きょうだい
a limp:足を引きずること
stigma:汚名, (欠点·異常などをしめす) 特質,印,徴候
stark :ありのまま,むき出しの,輪郭のはっきりした
solace :慰め，慰安，安堵